El Arbol Rojo Andres Rubio Pdf

Over the turn of the 21st century, the use of data from large electronic corpora has changed research on Spanish historical syntax, spurring interest in long-range evolutions, and the shape of the correspondent diachronic curves. However, general reflections on diffusion and the factors that drive and influence it are still pretty much lacking. In this paper, I reflect on the research possibilities laid open by the availability of such large masses of data, focusing particularly on new knowledge on syntactic change brought about by the study of low-frequency phenomena and of recessive changes, as well as on the exploration of changes conditioned by dialect contact, and textual traditions. I conclude with some remarks on the general typology of diffusion in syntactic change. ClassicalModernSpanishSpanishCongress (year ofMedieval(16–17th(18–19thHolochronicproceedings)Spanishcenturies)centuries)studiesI CIHLE (1988)25 (80,5%)5 (16%)01 (3%)II CIHLE (1992)38 (77,5%)7 (14%)1 (2,5%)3 (6%)III CIHLE (1996)17 (77%)01 (1%)5 (22%)IV CIHLE (1998)22 (63%)6 (17%)07 (20%)V CIHLE (2002)21 (57%)9 (24%)1 (3%)6 (16%)VI CIHLE (2006)25 (46%)5 (9%)2 (4%)22 (41%)VII CIHLE (2008)18 (37,5%)4 (8%)4 (8,5%)22 (46%)Total (277)166 (60%)36 (13%)9 (3%)66 (24%). Simple( Quijote, II, 33, 906).The evolution of the use of this syntactic schema is shown in (cf. Simple(Felipe Trigo, Jarrapellejos, 1914).Turning (just once) to the lexicon instead of syntax, the diminutive form mengajo (originally “rag,” then also “little child”) is assigned a Murcian origin in the old and venerable Diccionario de Autoridades (1726–1739), but neither CORDE/CDH nor their contemporary counterparts, CREA/CORPES XXI, contribute one single example; its persistence as a south-eastern hallmark is confirmed via Google searches, which also reveal the contemporary spread of this term into the eastern regions of La Mancha.

Map shows the prevalence of algotro (toward the west, circles, and triangles) and mengajo (toward the southeast, ovals, and squares) as found using Google (the basic parameters, restrictions, and limitations of the searches have been detailed elsewhere: cf. Evolution of the relative frequency of the construction ser “to be” + resultative participle (from: 99, reproduced by kind permission of the author).It might certainly be the case that the S-curve is actually the only function which can properly model the diffusion of syntactic change, as asserted by (cf. Also or ), who blame the peculiar curvature on how a community of speakers evaluate a linguistic variant in terms of its prestige within their social group, regardless of the structure of said social group.The overall structure of the trajectory of a language change is an S-curve, no matter how it is propagated through grammatical contexts, words, speakers, texts, geographical regions, or social classes. This overall trajectory appears to be determined by differential weighting of variants (replicator selection) (: 294).Besides lexical diffusion (i.e., “through words”), these authors explicitly mention a further mode of diffusion via syntactic patterns (i.e., “through grammatical contexts”). The latter would appear to be in action in the expansion of the shorter variant hemos at the expense of the older form habemos (both meaning “we have”), which unfolds along another sinuous S-curve principally during the Classical Spanish period (; cf.; ).

The process clearly appears to have been guided by the progressive expansion of the variant hemos out of its natural environment of origin in Old Castilian (as part of the “analytic future,” i.e., the INF + Clitic + AUX ( have) construction: cantarlo hemos “we will sing it”) to the formally and, most importantly, semantically related deontic periphrasis haber de + INF “have to + INF,” and there from, in successive waves, to the perfect tenses with haber + Past Participle “have PP,” less related to the source constructions both in form and meaning. This is suggested by the data in, the result of an exhaustive search in CORDE for 1500–1530, the period when the shorter variant hemos saw its initial boom. In global terms, shows that hemos and habemos occur with similar frequencies (50% of the total for each form) within the corpus; however, the variant hemos shows the greatest affiliation to haber de + INF (70% of examples of this periphrasis use the shorter variant, while it is the preferred form in only 41% of cases of haber + PP), whereas the variant habemos is shown to be largely preferred in non-auxiliary contexts (where haber is used as a verb of possession), clearly more distant from the periphrastic futurate construction where short hemos originated. Data taken from the CORDE database for the period 1500–1530., for example, also observes an expansion through syntactic contexts in the competition between ser + PP and haber+ PP with reflexive predicates. As, ) suggests, such processes evidence the importance of extension via similarities between related syntactic contexts during the enactment of a change taking place over the medium or long term. However, of most interest here is that it is not always certain that this type of syntactic extension will behave in exactly the same way as lexical extension in terms of its diffusion.

In fact, the curve shown on does not at first glance show the typical characteristics of an S-curve, beginning and ending with a shallow gradient while showing a much higher rate of change in its intermediate range. On the contrary, its central region suggests a period of relative stability after an initial surge and it finishes on a similarly steep trajectory (although, of course, both a slow inception before 1450 and a slow tapering-off after 1650 can be reasonably assumed). The reason for this may lie in the fact that the S-curve is a natural feature of lexical diffusion: initially, very few words will adopt a change; then, during the intermediate phase, given that the semantic connections between lexical elements form a complex network, groups of interconnected words will add together in a cascade with a cumulative, snow-balling effect; finally, only a few isolated areas of resistance remain, which explains the slow trailing off of the last phase. However, purely syntactic context expansion (cf.: 32–33) may follow a more irregular pattern: at some point the variant may come into use in several contexts simultaneously (or successively, but with very short time intervals between each), hence expand at a very high rate. However, once all the available areas of use have been accessed, its progress may stagnate as, in contrast to lexical diffusion, it does not receive an impulse from a sustained adoption on the part of a growing paradigm class ( host-class expansion; cf.

Again: 32–33). The existence of a final stage of accelerated mutation – i.e., the abandonment or diasystematic isolation of one of the competing variants, as described by: 55) – is in all probability the result of a (half-)conscious, socially motivated bias on the part of speakers. Certainly, proposal refers not only to “pure” S-curves but also to any course of development compatible with such curves (: 293): the trajectory in could be seen as a two-staged S-curve made up of two successive S-curves, the second of which includes a significant phase of initial delay or “latency”. Such irregularities in the shape of S-curves, however, could be indicative of a differential intervention of endogenous vs. Exogenous factors of change (cf. ), or of lexical vs.

Syntactic extension, or both. In any case, the study of further trajectories corresponding to other examples of syntactic extension should help narrow down the extent to which the observed differences can be generalized to a wider group of linguistic developments.The establishment of an ever increasing set of frequency curves of sufficient precision invites comparison between them, an exercise that might uncover correlations poorly studied until recently.

The GRADIA project, to which I belong, has investigated the development of a wide group of modal periphrases, as shown in. Interestingly, the increased use of tener que+ INF “to have to,” a periphrasis traditionally blamed for the regression of haber de+ INF, does not seem to directly prejudice the use of this construction until the dawn of the 20th century, which can be taken as an indication that, at first, these two constructions did not compete excessively to express the same values ( tener que+ INF emerges as a clearly obligation periphrasis: cf.

On the other hand, both the increase and the decline in usage of haber de+ INF “have to” are inversely related, from 1500 onward, to the curves showing the use of deber (de)+ INF “must, ought to,” a fact which suggests that haber de+ INF became engaged in Classical Spanish in a competition to express not only deontic, but also epistemic values, since deber (de) + INF could convey both (cf. Evolution of the relative frequencies (per million words) of nine Spanish modal constructions with an infinitive, all of them deontic except with parecer “to seem” (elaboration by Malte Rosemeyer using data from various members of the GRADIA project: reproduced by kind permission of the author). The data were recovered from the GRADIA corpus:.Thus, helps us to understand the importance of co-evolution in groups of constructions that are similar both in form and meaning: a specific trajectory might be accelerated (or slowed down) by the appearance of others within its local variational environment or “envelope of variation,” that is, its constructional network (for analogical effects of attraction and differentiation within such networks, cf. The effects of co-evolution are also felt in the case of the periphrasis with fronted infinitive, for example, cantar(lo) tengo (see above): the curve shows how the presence of clitics within the schema grows significantly until the middle of the 16th century, which, as already stated, clearly indicates a convergence with the “analytic future” cantarlo he, a construction in which the clitic is obligatory. However, this tendency never reaches completion; instead, the curve levels off and even shows a clear decline in the 17th century, most probably due to the fact that the construction with tener departs from the model with haber (which was receding at great speed under the competence of the “synthetic” solution cantarelo “I will sing it”) and becomes attracted to analogous sequences using the auxiliaries deber “must, ought to,” poder “can, be able to” and querer “want to,” in which the clitic can be used but is not obligatory. In any case, what is important here is that the formulation of these hypotheses emerges directly from the comparison of evolutionary paths, whether they describe the coevolution of a whole network or the syntactic properties of a single given phenomenon. Without observing these frequency curves, it would have been far more difficult for scholars to implement these new possibilities of analysis.On the other hand, the trajectory of haber de + INF “to have to” makes us wonder whether phenomena that become recessive at a certain point do always follow a descending S-curve even during this phase of recession (cf.

Do not deal with this type of change:There are changes in our survey that appear to stop and go in reverse. These may be interpreted as changes following an S-curve trajectory that are then interrupted; we do not analyze such changes here (: 279).Thus, like many other scholars, concentrate only on changes resulting in successful diffusion. The tendency to focus purely on the ascendant phase of certain changes is very common, for example, with remarks on the relationship between grammaticalization and frequency:As long as frequency is on the rise, changes will move in a consistent direction. When a grammaticalization construction ceases to rise in frequency, various things happen, but none of them is the precise reverse of the process (: 77).The increase in frequency, then, is a symptom of grammaticalization, but we are still none the wiser as to how to interpret the downturn in terms of that very same model of morphosyntactic change. Given that there is no need to assume that the changes which become generalized i.e., those that reach stage of mutation will be more abundant than those that fail to develop part way through their trajectory, it seems obvious that the studies of grammaticalization have still not managed to produce an unbiased model of diffusion, that is to say, one not restricted to the time period over which the grammaticalized element or schema is seen to expand.However, not only the recessive phases create doubts about the generalizability of S-curves. The expansion in use of the article before subordinate clauses headed by que “that” (; cf.;; ) shows a pattern of diffusion that is difficult to fit to a function of this type.

This phenomenon’s explosive surge rather conforms to an exponential curve, with a prolonged and shallow initial curve followed by a brisk upturn and without a third phase of moderate growth (note that the phenomenon becomes regressive after reaching its maximum value, gently falling back in compliance to the S-curve pattern). Diffusion of the use of the article ( el “the.M.SG”) before clauses introduced by que “that” presented as a weighted frequency by time period. Data from CORDE.explicitly disregard the existence of such trajectories, at least in the case of competing constructions of the kind envisaged by and themselves:To our knowledge there are no clearly documented cases of a change going toward completion that follows an exponential curve (either slow start with a rapid completion and no tapering off, or an immediate rapid increase followed by a slow completion rate) (: 280).But the construction in emerged as an alternative to other complementizer schemas without displacing any of them. It is worth noting here that we are dealing with a rather uncommon kind of curve, its main interest being that it invites reflection on whether this form of diffusion results from some special circumstances. In my opinion, the answer could be yes.

The phenomenon in is best explained as an extension in the use of the article as a syntactic marker from a similar and pre-existent construction in which the article precedes an infinitive clause (where the infinitive exhibits a clear verbal value: cf. As shown in, the “contagion” of the article to subordinate clauses introduced by que “that” occurred when its use with the infinitive clause was at its height (indicated with the lightest colored bar on ); when this schema enters its decline, the derived construction with el + que also decays. The growth of the schema in can be thus seen to rely on the success of another semantically similar schema serving as a supporting construction (cf. The phenomenon is by no means unique: it can be found in similar examples, such as the semantic extension of sino es “if not, but” from an exceptive meaning ( all were tall but Paul) to becoming a corrective adversative linking sequence ( Paul was not tall, but short: cf. As shows, the adversative value starts to flourish quite abruptly at the same time as its exceptive use also reaches its apex and subsequently dies away, following an S pattern, at the same rate as the parent schema. Evolution of weighted frequencies for sino es “if not, but”: (A) with an exceptive meaning ( sino es 1: no se casan sino es con permiso, “they won’t marry but with permission,” and (B) with corrective adversative meaning ( sino es 2: no son pobres sino es ricos, “they are not poor but rich”). Data from CORDE.We might be confronted here with a specific form of diffusion that could be termed as “parasitic,” given the dependence of the derived construction upon the schema on which it is based.

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This type of extension to new semantic values or syntactic schemas appears to be typical of secondary grammaticalization (that which affects elements or sequences that already have a grammatical value; cf. Especially;; ) and could produce very abruptly raising curves, which would thus be symptomatic of the mode of expansion and ensuing regression that terms retraction, i.e., the appearance and subsequent elimination of a function – in the sense of a new form-meaning pairing – toward the end of a grammaticalization chain (for the characteristic structures of such chains, cf.

In all events, the formulation of this hypothesis, which surely needs further proof, is once again made possible by the observation of correlations between curves describing the trajectories of related phenomena.The comparison of cognate trajectories is the strategy behind claim that a low-frequency, aborted change can still fuel other changes with greater impact. For instance, the superposition of the curve showing the usage of the definite article before Wh-questions and that showing the use of the article before a subordinate clause introduced by que “that” confirms : 542–543 suggestion that the former schema, although short-lived and never too frequent, could stimulate the expansion of the latter (cf. Moreover, the rise of these clauses where an article precedes a complementizer que ( el + que) could have buttressed, (according to ) the emergence of the homophonic sequence el que “which,” a newly grammaticalized compound relative pronoun formed with the article and a relative que. This possibility, however likely, naturally puts forth an additional question about the role of the replication of sequences already familiar to the speaker – i.e., sequences that are part of his competence and can serve as model for the processing and production of new sequences– as a triggering mechanism of grammatical change ( entrenchment via priming: cf. E.g.,;;; for some other historical phenomena in Spanish, cf.;; in print). Weighted frequency curves of ART+C (striped band), non-oblique (subject/object) compound relative pronouns (solid band), and oblique relative pronouns (band with light dots on dark background). Data from CORDE.Finally, with regards to the opportunity for improving our diasystemic (or variational) characterization of linguistic changes, large corpora allow us to, once again, make important progress in little time.

Context: Herbal therapies are used worldwide to treat health conditions. In Mexico, generations have used them to treat gingivitis, periodontitis, mouth infections, and discoloured teeth. However, few studies have collected scientific evidence on their effects.Objective: This study aimed at searching and compiling scientific evidence of alternative oral and dental treatments using medicinal herbs from Mexico.Methods: We collected various Mexican medicinal plants used in the dental treatment from the database of the Institute of Biology at the National Autonomous University of Mexico. To correlate with existing scientific evidence, we used the PubMed database with the key term ‘(scientific name) and (oral or dental)’.Results: Mexico has various medical herbs with antibacterial and antimicrobial properties, according to ancestral medicinal books and healers.

Despite a paucity of experimental research demonstrating the antibacterial, antimicrobial, and antiplaque effects of these Mexican plants, they could still be useful as an alternative treatment of several periodontal diseases or as anticariogenic agents. However, the number of studies supporting their uses and effects remains insufficient.Discussion and conclusion: It is important for the health of consumers to scientifically demonstrate the real effects of natural medicine, as well as clarify and establish their possible therapeutic applications. Through this bibliographical revision, we found papers that testify or refute their ancestral uses, and conclude that the use of plants to treat oral conditions or to add to the dental pharmacological arsenal should be based on experimental studies verifying their suitability for dental treatments.

IntroductionHumans have sought cures for diseases in nature since ancient times; even recently, the use of herbal medicines in dietary supplements, energy drinks, multivitamins, massage, and weight loss products has gained popularity (Petrovska ). These uses have broadened the field of herbal medicine and also increased its credibility.The field of dentistry also has begun to exploit herbal properties for the purpose of relieving tooth pain, gum inflammation, and canker sores (Kumar et al. However, it is of utmost importance to understand the interactions of plant extracts with the body and other medications, as many of these extracts have anti-inflammatory effects and prevent bleeding, which is important in dental treatment (Taheri et al. Antiseptics, antibacterial, antimicrobial, antifungal, antioxidant, antiviral, and analgesic agents derived from plants are of widespread interest in dentistry (Sinha and Sinha ).

For example, in recent years, in the field of periodontics and endodontics, several plant extracts such as a propolis, noni fruit, burdock root, and neem leaf have been used as intra-canal medications with excellent results, opening up a novel function for herbal agents in global dental therapy (Pujar and Makandar; Shah et al. ).In Mexico, the Aztec and Mayan cultures developed many uses for medicinal plants (Galarza ); this development ceased after the conquest, when the Spaniards controlled and evangelized the Aztecs (Cortez et al. The Spaniards introduced new products from the Old World to Mexico and, combined with native methods, thus enriched the natural medicine arsenal (Garcia ). Historical knowledge is essential because, without it, we would lack clarity and our medical practices would lack coherence (Estrada ). The effectiveness and possible application of numerous Mexican medicinal plants has not yet been studied with respect to dentistry.

Dental services even in the urban and in the rural areas of Mexico are expensive, and it is difficult for people to access the appropriate drugs (Medina-Solis et al.; Maupome et al. For these reasons, herbal remedies in Mexico are commonly used despite the lack of scientific support for their use, dosage, and effects (Andrade-Cetto ). In fact, people use them without caution because they believe such alternative treatments have no risks or no possibility of allergic reactions or other adverse effects as they come from natural sources. Therefore, it is important to study, analyse, and test the efficacy of traditional medicinal plants to establish and promote their use as alternative treatments or as potential sources for obtaining or developing new drugs.This study describes and clarifies the types of alternative oral and dental treatments based on herbal therapies that are commonly used in Mexico. We also reviewed the limited experimental evidence regarding herbal therapy to support the use of traditional Mexican medicine as a possible aid in the treatment of dental and oral pathologies, as well as a potential source for the development of drugs.

Traditional uses of Mexican herbs in dentistryIn Mexico, the most common oral diseases are caries and periodontal disease. However, dental services in rural areas are very expensive and do not represent a primary health concern for rural people, who prefer to use alternative medicine for this common but simple oral disease. Approximately 59.6% of people in Mexico have signs of periodontal disease and the prevalence of caries in the population over age 40 is close to 97% (Cruz and Picazzo ). The method of preparation of medicinal plants varies depending on the kind of plant, as well as the portions used (stems, leaves, and roots), route of administration (local, topical, and rinse), and time of ingestion. In some areas, people who have dental pain prepare fillings from a plant or chew the bark of multiple trees to treat inflammation, as well as use plant extracts as mouthwashes or teas.The use of medicinal plants can be an advantage in dental practice, for example eugenol is a part of our therapeutic arsenal (Rojas; Da Silva et al.

Some herbal products have recently undergone a thorough investigation with regards to their potential for preventing oral diseases, such as dental caries (Moreno et al. Although many years had elapsed without research on medicinal plants, this trend reversed when the National Medical Institute was established in 1888, creating new possibilities for herbal remedies (Rojas; De Micheli-Serra and Izaguirre-Avila ). Because plants are often the sources for novel drugs, their screening should be a priority in drug development (Lautie et al.

).Medicinal plants are an important element of indigenous medical system in Mexico (Heinrich ). However, interest in their effects and subsequent demonstrative studies are lacking. Presents a summary of the plants in DLTMM that are either used in Mexico or are of Mexican origin and used elsewhere for oral disease.

Scientific name (Family name)Common nameUsed partIndicationsAcacia cornigera (L.) Willd (Leguminosae)CornezueloLeafInflammation of gumsAcacia farnesiana (L.) Willd. (Leguminosae)HuizacheStemCold sore and toothacheAmphipterygium adstringens Schiede ex Schlech. (Anacardiaceae)CuachalalateLatexPeridontitisAsclepias curassavica L. (Asclepiadaceae)Quiebra muelasLatexCaries and toothacheBidens odorata Cav. (Compositae)AceitillaLeafCanker soresByrsonima crassifolia (L.) Kunth (Malpighiaceae)NancheLeaf and flowerToothacheCaesalpinia pulcherrima (L.) Swartz (Leguminosae)TabachinFruit and rootCanker soresCapsicum frutescens L. (Solanaceae)Chile de arbolLeafToothacheCarica papaya L. (Caricaceae)PapayaLeaf and fruitCanker soresChenopodium graveolens (Willd.) Weber (Chenopodiaceae)EpazoteLeafToothacheChiranthodendron pentadactylon Lam.

(Sterculiaceae)Flor de manitaFlowerToothacheDorstenia contrajerva L. (Moraceae)ContrayerbaRootCaries, toothache, and tooth abscessHeterotheca inuloides Cass. (Compositae)ArnicaFlowerCanker soresHeliopsis longipes (A.

(Asteraceae)ChilcuagueRootToothacheJatropha gaumeri Greenm. (Euphorbiaceae)PomolcheLatex or leafCanker sores, oral candidiasis, and tooth abscessLobelia laxiflora Kunth. (Campanulaceae)Aretillo or zarcilloAll plantCanker sores and toothacheOpuntia ficus-indica (L.) Miller (Cactaceae)NopalFruit and flowerOral ulcer and tooth abscessPersea americana Miller. (Lauraceae)AguacateFruitCanker sores, gingivitis, periodontal disease, and toothacheSida rhombifolia L. (Malvaceae)Escobilla or malvillaStem and leafGingivitis and toothacheTheobroma cacao L.

(Sterculiaceae)CacaoBeanOral ulcer and toothache. Scientific name (Family name)SubjectsOutcomesReferenceAloe vera (L.) Burm.f. (Asphodelaceae)120 volunteers with gingivitis aged 18–25 years oldInhibition of gingivitis and plaque accumulation after oral rinseChandrahas et al. 45 patients with plaque-induced gingivitis aged 18–65 years oldReduction of gingival inflammationAjmera et al. 345 healthy subjectsReduction of gingival bleeding and plaque indicesKarim et al.

76 intubated patients in intensive care unit aged 18-64 years oldReduction of gingival index compared with chlorhexidineRezaei et al. 390 healthy subjectsReduction of gingival index compared with chlorhexidineVangipuram et al. Capsicum frutescens L. (Solanaceae)Human buccal mucosa fibroblast cell lineSuppression of cell growth and total cell deathVan Wyk et al. Chenopodium ambrosioides L. (Dysphaniaceae)Minimum bactericidal concentration determination in culture platesIneffective antibacterial activity against S.

MutansVieira et al. Opuntia ficus-indica (L.) Miller (Cactaceae)Burning mouth syndrome patientsAmelioration of hyposalivation and mouth painCastillo and Aldape Persea americana Miller. (Lauraceae)Human periodontal ligament and human alveolar bone cell linePreventive action on the deleterious effects exerted by interlukin-1beta in periodontal diseasesAndriamanalijaona et al.

Minimum bactericidal concentration determination in culture platesHigh antibacterial activity against S. Mutans or Porphyromonas gingivalisRosas-Pinon et al. Polygonum aviculare L. (Polygonaceae)60 volunteers with gingivitis aged 18–25 years oldInhibition of gingivitis after oral rinseGonzalez Begne et al. Punica granatum L. (Punicaceae)23 volunteers with gingivitis and dental plaque aged 22–28 years oldNo significant activities between control and experimental groups for the visible plaque index and gingival bleeding indexSalgado et al.

Theobroma cacao L. (Sterculiaceae)Caries rats induced by S. MutansReduction of caries development and dental plaque accumulationOoshima et al. Broth medium with S. MutansReduction of the growth rate of oral streptococci by decrease of acid production28 volunteers with plaque depositions aged 19–29 years oldAntibacterial activity against S. MutansMatsumoto et al.

Perpendicular steel wire with artificial dental plaqueAntiplaque formationThe selected children with scaling of the teethReduction of colonization by S. Mutans and plaque depositionSrikanth et al. 50 children of both sexes aged 6–10 years oldAntimicrobial activity similar to chlorhexidineVenkatesh Babu et al. Uncaria tomentosa (Willd. Ex Schult.) DC (Rubiaceae)Minimum bactericidal concentration determination in culture platesHigher antimicrobial activity on Enterobacteriaceae, S.

Mutans, and S. Aureus isolatesCcahuana-Vasquez et al. DiscussionIt is well known that Mexico has a great diversity of medicinal plants (Taddei-Bringas et al. However, their uses are generally restricted to the treatment of simple diseases.

In addition, only a few papers with appropriate experimental methods have been conducted on their effects. Although they lack supporting research, Mexican herbal therapies are effective; unfortunately, they do not receive validation from the medical sector, because of little or no interest. Some even believe that herbal medicine denigrates their profession.Herbal therapy can offer many possible advantages.

Some plants have been shown to be more effective than drugs at repairing the overall body due to the synergy of their active ingredients to have preventive effects, stimulate the regulatory action of the defensive functions of the body, and prepare for possible activity against external agents (Arteche; Villar ). Side effects are often minor and therapeutic effects are more long lasting because of better tolerance and versatility (Comerford ). Unlike drugs that are prescribed for a specific condition, the herbal therapy may act on different targets simultaneously or acts a co-treatment with conventional medications (Cecchini ). The latter of course must be done carefully when combining agents without a medical indication (Fores ).Herbal medicines do have some disadvantages. Depending on the type of plant, the component used, or the dose, they can be toxic.

Some plants can cause abortions, interact with drugs used during surgery to prolong anaesthesia time, change vital signs, and increase postsurgical bleeding (Rivera et al.,; Albuquerque et al. Easy access to this type of medicine in Mexico is also a huge disadvantage because patients can consume medicinal plants without medical indication or supervision by an herbal therapeutic expert, leading to undesired medical interactions.Recently, some doctors and researchers have developed an interest in discovering or confirming the therapeutic effects of Mexican medicine. For example, Arrieta-Baez et al.

tested the effects of traditional Mexican medicine on gastrointestinal disorders, a major disease category in Mexico, with good results for the treatment of salmonellosis. With regards to dentistry, the use of medicinal plants as anti-inflammatory, antiseptic, or antibacterial agents has led to the development of new toothpastes and new therapeutic agents. Further studies are needed to support and continue this pioneering work, as it is vital for the effectiveness of these plants to be confirmed by research. Conclusions and perspectivesIt is essential to adopt a scientific attitude toward herbal medicine: critical and skeptical, but open to new knowledge. Further research should be conducted to evaluate their effectiveness as possible pharmaceutical sources and/or support their use as treatments. At the same time, care must be taken when promoting herbal medicines because, along with their therapeutic potential, there is a risk for misuse or adulteration. Above all, it is important that effects of herbal medicine can be maximized on the basis of precise plant origin and quality control.

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To prevent the misuse of Mexican herbal medicine, further studies are needed to establish these conditions by each herb.Herbal medicine is not a fad; rather, it reflects a wide and varied range of therapeutic resources, including homeopathy, acupuncture, and various forms of psychotherapy, as well as therapeutic agents derived from plants. Plants have been proposed as an alternative treatment for buco-dental diseases, a domain in which long-term reliability is an important aspect of treatment. New medical professionals must be able to assimilate popular knowledge, update it, and place it in the arsenal of modern medicine for the general benefit of society.